The Abortion Debate Essay Example for Free

The Abortion Debate EssayThe hi myth of the spontaneous abortion debate has keep for decades. In todays society the topic is real demanding and controversial. Prolifers as the name proceeds, frame the debate as the right to life for the baby. Individuals who atomic number 18 for Pro-choice may or may not address whether the fetus is in fact a life, and frame the debate in terms of woman having the right to submit whats best for their bodies without worrying about the government getting involved. In the following paper I will illustrate and cover the following questions.1.My personal opinion on the debate 2.The impact of the infamous Roe vs. Wade side 3.A firsthand view of the after effects for those who choose abortion.Abortion is defined as the Termination of pregnancy, and expulsion of an embryo or of a fetus that is incapable of survival. Abortion challenges a variety of external and littleon issues. Much of the debate over abortion tends to place emphasis on the is sue of rights specifically whether a womans rights to an abortion outweigh a fetuss rights to life. Whether she is pro-life or pro-choice some(prenominal) sides rely heavily on legal, scientific, and human right arguments to support their arguments. Growing up I was against abortion. I completely condemned it, when you decease in a two parent church firing home the Ten Commandments seem to become apart of your workaday life. I would soon find out that judging individuals for the choices they make would come back to hunt me.It is necessary for you to look at the pros and cons of both a pro-lifers stand point and a pro- choicers stand point. It has been a proven fact that while, most individuals that oppose abortion, they would do very differently if put in an uncompromising situation. For example lets take the individuals who stand in front of abortion clinics and rant about the individuals going into the clinics. speckle taking a journalism class in my last year of high school , my assignment was to get the viewpoint of someone who opposed abortion and why. I traveled to Gainesville, Fla and was blessed to get the chance to speak to Amanda Givens. Amanda was an activist for an organization thats legation was to deter individuals from having abortions.Amanda was very strong minded on the opinion and during the interview she would take the time to chant out things such as Murder Low Life and the infamous Your going to burn in hell quote. As I took in a deep breath Amanda advised me that life began at conception and these individuals were cold hearted murders, she even asked me to take pictures of them in which I refused due to the privacy. Although I was against abortion I didnt know the reason that these ladies where seeking one so out of respect for them I didnt ask because it was appropriate. Scientific studies show that conception starts at day fourteen of conception. With that being said is it valid to say that abortion is pre-meditated murder? Or is it considered illegal only if it doesnt endanger the mothers life.As I asked Amanda these questions she stayed calm but I knew she was furious at the thought that second guessed her considering the mess behind it. Amanda finally replied Listen these are innocent lives and I dont care what reason you have a abortion Its ill-timed and its damn murder This interview took place December 2000, when I left I gave Amanda my cell and email address so that she could keep in touch and keep me posted on how successful her mission was coming along. Surprisingly two years later to my amazement Amanda had emailed me citing a urgent brush and needing to speak with me about the mission, she even offered to make the three hour drive to meet up with me and assured me that what she had to say would be life changing.Of course I agreed but I was dumbfounded, I was thinking maybe she acquired my help on the mission, so we agreed to meet the following day at a local Star Bucks caf. I sat patient ly drinking my freshly brewed coffee when Amanda pulled up in her freshly was Honda Accord looking nothing less than fabulous. I greeted her with a hug and a smile, but something wasnt right, her demeanor for some odd reason was different and I was anxious to hear the news program she had for me. I ordered her a cup of coffee and we began to catch up where we left off in Florida.Before I could ask about the mission Amanda told me that she was no longer against abortion. I stood up in astonishment as she told me to have a seat I was amazed at what she said next. She began to see me it was a Thursday night and it was her turn to gather the signs and brochures for the next days rally, she was excited that she had deterred two teens from abortion and was ready to go home and celebrate. As she walked back to her car, (by this time Amanda had started crying and I became real suspicious of what was to come).She had left the most vital part of her story out so she insisted that she start over, prior that week she had do the acquaintance of a African American man that informed her that God had sent him to her to help out with the mission surprised as she was she advised him to be there at 700am to help set-up because the clinic opened up at 800 am. The man whom said his name was Charles was there intellectual and early talking teens out of abortions and doing a marvelous job of even helping adults making decisions. Amanda said she felt worry this was what her mission was missing. To Amandas thump Charles never came back again until, a week later on the night in question. Amanda said while she was walking back to her car with a handful of signs a familiar face dragged her by her hair into the bushes and proceeded to rape her It Was Charles Amanda said she cried to God and whoever could hear her for help but as dark as it was no one could hear her.After Charles was done raping Amanda he ran off into the night. Amanda noticed that Charles didnt have protection on a nd that she had, semen leaking from her vagina. After contacting practice of law Amanda laid there praying that she wouldnt get pregnant and that her new husband of four months wouldnt find out. Unfortunately Amanda said her prayer went unanswered and weeks later she found out that she was pregnant, she insisted that her only option to saving her marriage was to take a trip to Columbus, GA and have an abortion.Amanda insisted that the decision was based mainly to hold open her marriage and to keep her family from disowning her for having an interracial baby. Amanda says that while having an abortion was the hardest thing that she has ever done, it literally saved her life. She admits that without the abortion that she would have committed suicide than to live the existence of what was growing inside of her. In conclusion Amanda states that although she still feels abortions are wrong, women should have the option of making the decision themselves privately rather deal with rallies alike(p) that of Amanda took part in publically. On the way out the door Amanda said something to me that I will never forget The best prayers are unanswered ones Amanda hoped that her story would change my mind on how I felt about abortions and realize that you cant make a generalization about another individuals decisions until you have experienced it firsthand yourself.The Roe vs. Wade case is known to date as the most legendary abortion case in the world cases like this made it possible for individuals in situations like Amandas and those with other circumstances to make decisions for themselves without the governments say so . According to Alters (2010) Thirty Years later coitus has passed the Partial birth abortion ban act of 2003, president bush signed it into law, becoming the first president to ever place a federal ban on abortion (p.133 para 2). Although the Roe vs. Wade case wasnt established until two years after Jane Doe had her baby, it was the landmark case known to day in all high school and college text books and around the country. The more that Americans understand this case the more they regard it as illegitimate. While people have realized the act of abortion on certain grounds should be legal.In some cases you will find individuals that feel like Amanda felt and feel as though abortion is wrong on all grounds. According to Morgentaler (2001) Abortion is an act that corrupts national morality and harms women by encouraging irresponsible and predatory male behavior. More importantly a womans right to an abortion ignores the rights of the unborn child- and individual should be legally protect (p 321). While both the prolife and pro choice side has equal substantial debates from listening to Amandas situation I am now for abortion although I feel that granted the circumstances unless rape, or endangerment to the mother there are enough contraceptives and knowledge circulating that you should know how to refrain from getting pregnant.

Atomistic Fabrication Technology to Enhance Accuracy

Atomistic Fabrication engineering science to Enhance Accuracy richness of Atomistic Fabrication Technology to Enhance Machining Accuracy During Electrochemical Machining of MetalsRitesh Upadhyay, Arbind Kumar P.K. SrivastavaAbstractAtomistic fabrication technology fully utilizes forcible and chemical phenomena with atomistic and electronic understanding. In the case of mechanical machining many defects are introduced when pushing the motherfucker on the take shapepiece surface and then atoms on the workpiece surface are removed by the displacement and multiplication of such(prenominal) defects. Therefore many defects remain on the workpiece surface after mechanical machining. Machining accuracy is considerably affected by disturbances such as thermal deformation and external vibration because remotion depth is dependent on the cutting depth of the tool and is very difficult to establish precision products by mechanical machining. In the case of atomistic fabrication technology surface atoms are naturally removed by chemical reaction caused by reactive species and therefore no deformed layer on the workpiece surface. A very high-precision product can be easily manufactured with shelter physical and chemical phenomenon used for removal reaction. In this paper possibility of atomic level removal of work piece (Iron workpiece) have been explored. The current and potentiality requirements for removal of some thousand atoms allow for be reckon along with. the mechanism of removal of metals in relation with everywhere-potential and conductivity.IntroductionThe essence of nanotechnology is the ability to work at the molecular(a) level, atom by atom, to create large structures with fundamentally new molecular organization. Compared to the doings of isolated molecules of about 1 nm (10 -9 m) or of bulk materials, behavior of structural features in the range of about 10-9 to 10-7 m exhibit important changes. Nanotechnology is concerned with materials and sys tems whose structures and components exhibit novel and significantly improved physical and chemical offsetes due to their nanoscale size of it. The goal is to exploit these properties by gaining control of structures and turn of eventss at atomic, molecular, and supramolecular levels and to learn efficient manufacturing and use these devices 1-4. Maintaining the stability of interfaces and the integration of these nanostructures at micron-length and macroscopic scales are all keys to success.New behavior at the nanoscale is not necessarily predictable from that observed at large size scales.The most important changes in behavior are caused not by the order of magnitude size reduction, but by newly observed phenomena intrinsic to or becoming predominant at the nanoscale5-6. These phenomena include size confinement, predominance of interfacial phenomena and quantum mechanics. Once it becomes possible to control feature size, it will also become possible to enhance material properti es and device functions Being able to reduce the dimensions of structures down to the nanoscale leads to the unique properties of carbon nanotubes, quantum wires and dots Nanotechnology is the exploitation of the novel and improved physical, chemical, mechanical, and biological properties, phenomena, and processes of systems that are intermediate in size surrounded by isolated atoms/molecules and bulk materials, where phenomena length and time scales become comparable to those of the structure. It implies the ability to gene localize and utilize structures, components, and devices with a size range from about 0.1 nm (atomic and molecular scale) to about 100 nm by control at atomic, molecular and macromolecular levels. Novel properties occur compared to bulk behavior because of the small structure size and short time scale of various processes7-8.Electrochemical ReactionWhen the current passed through a NaCl electrolyte solution following reaction occureNaCl = Na+ + Cl body of water = H + + OHThe positive ions moves towards cathode and negative ions moves towards anode. Each Na+ ions gain an electron and is converted to Na . Hence Na+ ions are reduced at the cathode by means of electrons.Cathode ReactionNa+ + e = NaNa +H2O = NaOH + H+2H+ + 2e = H2It shows that only hydrogen gas evolve at cathode and there will be no depositionAnode ReactionFe = Fe2+ +2eFe2+ + 2Cl = FeCl2Fe2+ + 2OH = Fe (OH)2FeCl2+ 2OH = Fe(OH)2 + 2Cl2Cl Cl2 + 2e2FeCl2 + Cl2 = 2FeCl3H+ + Cl = HCl2Fe(OH)2 +H2O +O2 = 2Fe(OH)3Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl = FeCl3 + 3H2OFeCl3 + 3NaOH = Fe(OH)3 + 3NaClTheoretical AspectsBuilding block atoms play an important part in future atmostic fabrication technology. Material removal rate for removal of Fe work piece at atomic level have been calculate by using Faradays law.Where MRR = Metal Removal Rate , A = Atomic weight, I = Current, Z = valency,F = faradays constant . The results are shown in figure 1,Fig 1 Plot of Metal Removal Rate against Current Density, A=55.8 5,Z=2,F=96500It is clear from the figure that very low current is undeniable for atomic scale removal of iron atoms from the iron work piece. The requirement of voltage for removal of iron at atomic scale have been calculated using ohms Law and shown in figure 2Fig 2 Plot of Metal Removal Rate against Voltage, where specific conduction=0.0387ohm-1 cm-1others arguing are same as in figure 1.It is clear from the figure that voltage requirement is very low. The current and voltage data for removal of few thousand atoms shows that conductivity and over-voltage play important role in current carrying process.Effect of electrolyte conductivity on MRRElectrolytes are substances that become ions in solution and having content to conduct electricity. The electrolyte has three main functions in the ECM process. It carries the current between the tool and the workpiece, it removes the product of the reaction from the cutting region, and it removes the heat produced by the current lower in the operation. Electrolytes must have high conductivity, low toxicity and corrosivity, and chemical and electrochemical stability. The rate of material removal in ECM is governed by Faradays laws and is function of current density which depends upon the concentration of electrolyte with increment in concentration of electrolyte the MRR increases continuously up to a limiting value after which if further increase in concentration is made the MRR decreases due to decrease in ionic mobility.Effect of Over voltageThe over-voltage is the important parameter which restrict the material removal rate and is sensitive to toolfeed rate and equaliser machining gap. Material removal rate decreases due to increase in over voltage and decrease in current efficiency, which is directly related to the conductivity of the electrolyte solution.Over voltage was calculated asV = V where V = over voltage, V = utilise voltage, = density of work piece, F = Faraday constant, K = conductivity / specific conductance of electrolyte solution, A = atomic number of work piece metal, Ye = equilibrium gap and f = tool feed rate. The variation of over voltage with equilibrium gap is shown in Figure 3 which indicate that over-voltage decreases linearity with increase in equilibrium gap. When equilibrium gapapproaches to zero, over voltage approaches to applied voltage. Figure 4 shows variation of tool feed rate with overvoltage, which shows that over voltage decreases sharply with discernment rate and goes to negative side after a certain tool feed rate. Negative value of V, seems to be unreal because un-matching long range values of penetration rate for single fixed value of equilibrium gap.Fig 3. Plot of Over voltage against equilibrium machining gapFig 4. Plot of over voltage against penetration gapConclusionThe effort is made to focus on the importance of atomistic fabrication technology with the effect of key factors like over voltage and electrolyte concentration influencing the qual ity of machined surface and dimensional accuracy. The application of this technology during machining of metals and alloys proves that the electrochemical reactions can be used for nanometer accuracy, which allows high precision machining.The make up including power supply, electronic circuit, tool and electrolyte feed devices have been proposed to perform nano electrochemical machining in order to enhance the machining accuracy.ReferencesMukherjee S.K, Kumar S , and Srivastava P.K effect of electrolyte on the current- carrying process in electrochemical machining. J . Mechanical Engineering Science 221,1415 -1419 2007.Stotes J, Lostao A, Gomez C, Moreno , Baro A.M. Jumping mode AFM imaging of biomolecules in the repulsive electrical double layer basal microscopy 1-6 2007.McGeough, J.A. principles of electrochemical machining chapterIII (chapman,Hall.London) 1974.Ma, and R. Schuster, Locally enhanced cathodoluminescence of electrochemicallyfabricated gold nanostructures, Journal o f Electroanalytical Chemistry, vol. 662, pp. 1216, 2011.McGenough J A, Leu M, Rajurkar K P, et al. Electroforming process and application tomicro/macro manufacturing. CIRP AnnalsManufacturing Technology, 50(2) 499-514, 2001.Zhang Z Y, Zhu D, Wang M H. Theoretical and experimental research into electrochemicalmicromachining using nanosecond pulse Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering43(1) 208-213, 2007 in Chinese.Lee E S, Baek S Y,Cho C R. A case of the characteristics for electrochemical micromachining withultrashort voltage pulses The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 31(7-8)762-769, 2005.Schuster R., Kirchner V, Allonue P, and Ertl G, Electrochemical micromachining, Science 289, 98101_2007.Datta M, Shenoy R. V, and Romankiw L. T, Recent advances in the study of electrochemicalmicromachining, ASME J. Eng. Ind. 118, 2936,1996.Datta M, Microfabrication by electrochemical metal removal, IBM J. Res. Dev. 42, 655669,1998.Rajurkar K.P, Kozak J, and Wei B, St udy of Pulse Electrochemical Machining Characteristics AnnalsInternational College for Production Research Vol. 42, 231-234, 1993.Hocheng, H., Kao, P. S. and Lin, S. C., Prediction of the Eroded visibleness during ElectrochemicalMachining of Hole, Proc. JSME/ASME Int. Conf. Materials and Processing, pp. 303_307 (2002).Keown, Mc. P. A., The Role of Precision Engineering in Manufacturing of the Future, Annals CIRP,Vol.36, pp. 495_501 (1987).Electrochemical Machining in Production Technology, HMT, Bangalore, Tata McGraw HillPublishing Company, New Delhi, India, p. 478 (1980).

Errors Made By Polish Students In English English Language Essay

computer misapprehensions Made By finishing Students In slope English voice communication EssayIntroductionLangu suppurate is an cock of communication among people. It is a puff up structured and special characteristic of human race interaction. According to Sapir (1921,p.8)Language is a rigorously human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by intend of a system of voluntarily get under ones skind symbols.Learning a new quarrel involves such components as grammar, style and phonology. It is necessary to make a distinction between devil processes acquiring and information a vocabulary. The former discount be defined as a subconscious process that is identical to the process children utilize in acquiring their scratch line manner of speaking. Krashen (1985, p.1) states that learnedness refers to the conscious process that results in knowing ab stunned wording. Ellis (1994) adds that learning is not as victoryful and long lasting as language acquisition.In order to be able to communicate, people should master the four skills reading, listening, public speaking and writing. The last skill which the researcher focussed on is a very complex process. As Allen and Corder (1974, p.177) say, it is the most intemperate of the language abilities to acquire. When apprentices want to produce a piece of writing in sulfur language (L2), they try to translate nigh First language (L1) words or phrases by applying rules from their L1. It is presumed that most of the problems approach L2 learners ar coiffured by their mother barbarism. If the contrast between L1 and L2 appears, the learners native language knowlight-emitting diodege interferes with the backside language and problems atomic number 18 difficult to avoid. However, a similarity of dickens languages in some situations may help L2 learning. The process that is responsible for this is called language transfer which is to a fault known as cross-polygloti c influence (Arabski, 1997). Many linguists confuse been interested in the nature of the learners language and the major mistakes which arise in it. ace of those was Corder (1981) who recognised the signifi can buoyce of interference and fossilisation in the process of second language learning, claiming that each L2 learner uses a special agreeable of a legitimate dialect governed by its own set of rules, some of them being left(p) to the learner and his native language(1981,p.25).Selinker (1974, p.35) also believed in the goence of a separate linguistic system based on the observable output which results from a learners try drudgery of a TL norm. Such a system, which he referred to as lingua franca, is always different from the target language until the native speakers competence has been achieved by the learner. The apprehension of such an interim language added a new dimension to the learner language study. Before that, with contrastive analytic thinking, linguists made only a one steering comparison between the first and the target language. With reference to Selinkers theory, language structure comprises the fundamental processes such as(1) First language transfer(2) errors go alongring as a result of this process atomic number 18 attributed to the learners native language influence(3) send of training(4) Strategies of second language learning(5) Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic fabric (Selinker 1974, p.37) refining language belongs to the West Slavonic branch of the Indo-European languages it is terminationly related to Czech, Slovak and Russian. In some parts of Europe such as Russia, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine Polish is also used as a second language. In monetary value of the grammar, Polish is a very inflected language. There ar numerous features, which signalize the language from the other languages. A noun for example constitutes gender masculine, feminine, neuter. Nouns, pronouns and adjectives meet sev en case forms, which have different endings. Another problem for Polish learners refers to phrasal verbs and members that dont exist in their native language. Moreover Polish language also has indefinite fractional and collective numerals, which depend on the thing that is counted. All these contrasts lead to errors.In Poland people learn English as a foreign language. Polish learners are in a different situation than inhabitants of, for instance, India or Republic of southernmost Africa as English is not their official language. Therefore, they have no need to develop assimilative or integrative motivation for learning English as they do not feel the drive to write and speak same native speakers and sustain high level of foreign language. In this way, Poles are outlying(prenominal) more interested in studying English for more instrumental purposes, such as going abroad and finding a well-paid job, or acquiring a promotion in their native country. It also happens that they fri endships acquired by means of the Internet has led to a desire to communicate with them, thus English seems to be most suitable as it is spoken all over the world. One of the benefits of knowing a foreign language skills is intercultural communication. English is becoming the most general second language in the world. It is used as lingua franca, for politics, and business and education.After changing the political system in Poland, English has become more popular and is considered an important part of a good education. It became a compulsory subject in primary and second-string schools in Poland (Swan and Smith, 2001). breaksEvery foreign language learner commits errors. As Brown (1980,p.164) claims second language learning in contrary to the first language learning is a process in empirical nature. Teachers and researchers realized that L2 learners errors hitd a new system of language which had to be analyzed carefully. It is very important to make a distinction between variou s graphemes of language behavior by giving the definition of error and mistake which are frequently misused. According to Ellis (1997,p.17) errors reflect gaps in a learners knowledge they occur because the learner does not know what is sink As for the mistake Brown (1980,p.165) states that it refers to a performance error that is either random guess or a slip, in that it is a failure to utilize a known system . From the researchers experience as a Polish native it is necessary to state that Poles commit umteen errors, such as syntactic, or semantic ones, and they are the ones in which either L1 and L2 (or both) play the most important role. This is partially caused by the fact that learners often investigate with prepositions and articles they know they cannot rely on the interference/transfer from Polish. Hence, they build their own hypotheses and try to insert the correct functional word. Moreover, some syntax errors are difficult to classify. Most of the deviances result fro m applying Polish syntactic rules to English phrases. The main difficulty is that the wrong choice of word results in the emergence of a semantic error, and if a larger phrase is written on the basis of L1 rules, it renders the whole phrase or sentence incomprehensible for a non- Polish speaker. Then, malformed sentences make English difficult to decode even for a proficient speaker. It has also been one of the main concerns of the branch of linguistics, which is, researching similarities and dissimilarities between first and foreign language acquisition, as well as determining the strategies which learners employ in the course of these processes.Teaching adolescent foreign language learners is a challenge for second language instructors and at that step up are more reasons behind it. Firstly it is essential to emphasize the fact that in the case of children, acquiring L2 comes together with general cognitive and affective development of a child, which means that even though chi ldren have no meta- awake(predicate)ness, they are capable of automatic acquisition that is not hindered by personality, motivation, attitude or other factors (Brown, 2000). aged learners, such as adolescents or adults undergo the process of language acquisition in a different way. It looks more like a formal ramify of learning (which is the result deliberate principle) in the course of which explicit rules and language content are presented since the cognitive development is already completed in this age group. In other words, adolescents are able to think in abstract terms, they can learn far complex grammatical issues as the already developed meta-cognition and inductive learning ability allow them for that (Ellis,1995).There are various factors which influence second language learning. They include individual learner differences such as age, cognitive style, intelligence, motivation/needs, learners grammatical system and learners native language. According to Komorowska (2002 ) adults and adolescent learning is unnatural it is practically easier if they learn a second language or token goals or reasons which results in a greater motivation. Littlewood (1984,p.53) confirms the importance of motivation for learning a second languageIn second language learning as in every other field of human learning, motivation is the crucial force which determines whether a learner embarks on a task at all, how much energy he devotes to it, and how long he perseveres.According to Hopp (2004), two kinds of motivation can be distinguished intrinsic and extrinsic. The former one is more rife among adults. The learners see language as an instrument to raise their self-esteem and achieve special goals such as getting a better job. The second kind of motivation is characteristic of a childs way of learning. Both these types of motivation are useful in the language learning process.Reason for choosing the topicWriting is a very important skill, however it causes much more pr oblems than speaking or reading especially for L2 learners who think in their own language. In Poland the majority of secondary school pupils have not mastered this skill ascribable to the neediness of emphasis on program line writing. During studies in Poland and working as a teacher of English, the researcher observed a number of errors made by Polish learners. A considerable number of these errors were similar to the ones she used to make as a beginner or even intermediate learner of English. Most of them reflected her lack of competence, knowledge of rules, whereas other errors were very much related to the writers mother tongue. Linguistically speaking, thither were transfer errors, or, in other words, errors which involved interference e.g. Polish grammatical rules were applied to English. There are various reasons why the researcher has chosen this topic. One of these is differences between the two languages and also difficulties facing the learners from Poland. Although Po lish students learn English language in primary and secondary schools, they are not able to produce correct sentences. They still try to translate sentences from their native language into English. All of the rules that need to be applied in L2 are different in L1. Thus, Polish learners and other non-native speakers (NNS) are prone to make more errors.1.2. Aim and Objectives of the studyThe research has been conducted with reference to secondary school pupils from Poland. The overall aim of the study is to visualise what type of errors are most common in the written preaching of the students. The associated research objectives areWhat sorts of errors are most common in the written discourse of Polish learners of English as a foreign language?What is the percentage of various errors in learners written discourse?What are then the possible sources of those errors?How faculty the frequency of these errors be reduced?Why these errors occur? What could be done to improve written disco urse?1.3.Outline of the studyThe dissertation is dual-lane into five chapters. It begins with the installation describing the general background of the study.The second chapter provides a literature overview of theories related to errors and their sources. This part also shows classification and invoice of language behaviors. The definition of Contrastive psychoanalysis and Error Analysis can also be found it this chapter.A description of methodology can be found in the third chapter. The author discusses the instrument for collecting and analyzing the data.Chapter four deals with results from analysis of students errors in written compositions. Students samples and questionnaires are examined and interpreted in detail.The last chapter draws some conclusions on the research and considers recommendations for students and teachers. It also discusses implications for future training and researchChapter IITheoretical background2.1 Nature of errorIt is obvious that every language le arner is bound to make errors which are typically human characteristic. Errors have been of interest to many researchers as they are seen as a very important element in language acquisition. According to Norrish (1983) they can occur for many reasons they may arise from the choice of the material, from the learners processing of the material or even from learners lack of attention. However the most heartbreaking kind of language deviances is caused by lack of learners knowledge.It is very important to introduce the distinction between errors, mistakes, lapses and slips. These terms are frequently misused by teachers. Although they have a similar meaning, the differences are significant. As for an error, numerous definitions have been given by different linguists with various attitudes towards errors.In most cases errors are regarded as negative language behavior. Norrish (1983,p.7) believed they are inapplicable a sign of failure and systematic deviation, when a learner has not le arnt something and consistently gets it wrong. Corder (1967) and Richards (1974) also consider errors as deviations from a standard linguistic system. To jut out this assumption Corder (1967,p.166) saysErrors are systematic, consistent deviances characteristic of the learners linguistic system at a given set of learning. The key point is that the learner is using a definite system of language at every point in his developmentThe learner errors are evidence of this system and are themselves systematicA similar attitude was presented by Dulay and Burt (1982,p.138) who considered errors as the flawed side of learners speech or writing.On the other hand errors can also be seen as an important and positive part of learning a language. As Norrish (1983,p.6) states the error itself may be a necessary part of learning a language. batch are not able to detect errors because they have not learned the particular part of the material.Another linguist who was interested in this area was Ellis (1986,p.9), who also believed in the good side of error, statingErrors are an important source of information about SLA, because they demonstrate conclusively that learners do not simply memorize target language rules and then reproduce them in their own utterances. They indicate that learners construct their own rules on the basis of input data, and that in some instances at least these rules differ from those of the target language.Lightbown and Spada (1999) agreed with the positive sides of errors, claiming that they can be the result of seeking the correct structure of the language.A different, less serious type of language behavior is called a mistake. According to Corder (1967) mistakes are deviances due to performance factors which include limitation of memory or emotional strain. Ellis (1997,p.17) claims that mistakes are simply the result of slips of the tongue and should not be seen as the result of a wrong interpretation of some rules of the target language. Moreover, th e learner who has made this kind of random inaccuracies can correct them when his attention is drawn to them. Norrish (1983) identifies two more terms related to errors such as lapse and slips. The former one is defined as a type of wrong usage, which may occur due to lack of concentration or shortness of memory. He adds that this kind of wrong usage is not very serious and can be also made by native speakers at any term. The last type of language deviation described by Norrish (1983,p.8) is a careless slip, that is caused by the learners inattentiveness in class.2.1.1. Significance of errorsAn essential theory referring importance of errors was introduced by Corder (1967) in his article The significance of learners errors. The author made a distinction between systematic and non systematic error (mistake). He noted that incorrect utterances were a sign of the language development. Moreover he provided evidence that errors are significant in three ways. Firstly to the teachers, err ors can tell how far the learner progressed and what knowledge he has to learn to reach the aim. Furthermore they are instrumental to the researcher as they demonstrate evidence of the way the language is learned and also methods that are used by a learner to discover the language. Thirdly, reservation of errors are regarded as a device used by a learner in order to learn. Corder (1967) also claims that making of errors is a strategy apply both by children acquiring their mother tongue and by those learning a second languge.2.2.Contrastive analysisIn 1960 some new theoretical concepts were brought in to foreign language teaching that is Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis. As Connor (1996) stated the theory of second language learning assumed that before that time most errors were attributed to interference. Contrastive analysis (CA), a major branch of applied linguistics was a very valuable tool in language teaching methodology for both teachers and learners. It provided com parative and contrastive description of the learners native language and the target language. It was assumed that if teachers knew the structure of the learners MT, they would be able to prepare better teaching materials. Lado (1957 cited in James 1980) explained that the contrastive study was established to transfer some features of the L1 to the L2 .Practitioners of CA aimed at explaining particular aspects of L2 learning. They looked at correspondence between the two languages. Lightbown and Spada (1999,p.23) gave an explanation to that situation, statingContrastive analysis hypothesis predicts that where at that place are similarities between the first and the second language, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.As James (1980) observed, there are three things that can be predicted by CA. They include areas which will cause problems, learners difficulties and learners errors.The aims of the method are pedagogical. As Lado (1957) cited in Ellis. The main aim of CA is pedagogical. As Lado (1957 cited in Edmondson 1999,p.92) statesThe teacher who has made a comparison of the foreign language with the native language of the students will know better what the real problems are and can provide for teaching them.According to Gass and Selinker (2001) CA was based on several(prenominal) of the following assumptionstheory defining language as habitlanguage learning involves a new set of habitsthe main cause of errors in the production of L2 is learners mother tongue.CA considers differences between L1 and L2learners should learn only dissimilarities between the two languages whereas similarities should be ignoreddifficulties are established by differences and similarities between L1 and L2Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis developed two positions that refers strong and weak version. In the strong version it was assumed that prediction could be made about learning and the success of teaching material after comparing the two languages. The weak version begins with an analysis of learners errors judgeing to account for these errors on the basis of L1 and L2 differences.Besides the positive aspects of CA, researchers saw many problems deriving from comparison L1 and L2. According to Gass and Selinker (2001) CA could not predict all of the areas in learners difficulties. Moreover they claimed that it is inadequate to clarify the sources of certain types of errors. All of the disadvantages of CA led to development of another linguistic notion called Error Analysis.2.3 Error AnalysisError analysis (EA) is a type of linguistic investigation which deals with the differences between learning a language and using the language by native speakers.According to Crystal (1980 135) error analysis is described asAs a technique for identifying, classifying and systematically interpreting the mistakes made by someone learning a foreign language, using any of principles and pro cedures provided by linguistics.A similar definition of Error Analysis (EA) is given by Brown (1980). He described it as a process of observation, classification of errors and after that revealing the systems used by learners. It was expand when validity of CA was questioned. According Gass and Selinker (2001) EA offered more possible explanations than CA .It uses possibility of accounting for learners errors while CA attributed errors to mother tongue only. Corder (1967) stresses that EA has two aims diagnostic, which shows the state of learners interlanguage and prognostic which predicts future learners problems.It focuses on the errors learners make in SLA, assuming that these errors can be easy to avoid if the learners mother tongue and the target language were compared (Richards, 1974). The analysis of the errors was carried out in order to detect difficulties in learning and to discover how a student learns a language. Moreover, EA is dealing with the exploring of the language of second language learners.2.4. Procedures of Error AnalysisThere were three steps introduced by Corder (1967) in EA reseachData collection recognition of idiosyncrasyDecription Accounting for idiosyncratic dialectExplanation (the supreme object of error analysis)Furthermore, Gass and Selinker (2001,p.79) recognized six steps in conducting error analysis. They include Data collection, Identifying errors, classifying errors, quantifying errors, analysis of sources and remediation.Beside the advantages of EA, researchers found that it fell short in the analysis of SLA data. According to Gass and Selinker (2001,p.83) one of the problematic area was the render to ascribe causes to errors. EA assumed that errors belonged to one source or another. Dulay and Burt (1974b,p.115) identified the fact that EA cannot categorize errors. As a result they originate a category called ambiguous goofs which are defined as those that cant be categorized as either Interference-like goofs or L1 devel opmental goofs2.4.1. Identifying errorsIn this step Corder (1974) prepared a model for recognizing erroneous or idiosyncratic utterances in L2. According to this pattern any sentences produced by learners can be investigated for idiosyncrasies. Based on that model, Corder made a distinction between overt and covert errors. As Ellis (1994) claims the first group of errors is very easy to identify due to the fact that a deviation in forms is very clear. Covertly erroneous sentences are superficially well formed but it can not be interpretable. This mean that the learner may create utterances that are produced on the basis of internalized rules. Overt errors involve utterances which are ungrammatical. As Allen and Corder (1974,p.126) added that recognition of error is thus crucially dependent upon correct interpretation of the learners intentions.2.4.2. Description of errorsThe next step after recognizing the errors is describing them. There were a few attempts to describe errors using various taxonomies. Ellis (1997,p.18) among other linguists divided errors into categories. He presented a type of classification related to general ways in which the learners utterances differ from the reconstructed target-language utterances. A similar error taxonomy was produced by Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982), who classify errors into four categories. They include omission, addition, misformation and misordering. The first kind occurs when some items are left out in well formed utterances. For example She writing. Addition involves producing structure that is not required for an utterance to be considered grammatical. As Ellis (1997) claims the most common group of errors is misformation, which considers using sentences with the wrong form of the structure. As an example Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982 cited in Ellis 1994,p.56) offer some samples of wrong forms such as He did not went there (Dulay, Burt and Krashen cited in Ellis (1994)). Evidence of misordering is found when some morphemes are in the wrong order. For instance What he is reading?.It is noteworthy that this kind of error taxonomy only shows which errors are the most frequent. However , it was not possible to explain how L2 is learned. Therefore a better example was introduced by Corder (1973) who presented three steps in learning according to error nature and degree of systematicityPresystematic stageSystematic stagePostsystematic stageIn the first stage according to Brown (1980) learners do not know the language structure well, they experiment what results in making many errors. Moreover, students are not aware of particular systems or rules in L2 and they produce random errors. The presystematic stage is seen as the time when students know some rules which they attempt to apply but unsuccessfully. The learner can explain his errors by providing linguistic messages in different structures. However, self correctness is still not possible in this phase. The next stage assumes that learner s appear to have acquired a rule. Brown (1980) mentions a term backsliding to errors which can occur in this stage. Brown (1980,p.170) defines it as a form of linguistic regression arising out of the natural spiraling characteristic of human learning Appearance of postsystematic stage is found when learners make errors which can be corrected. As Brown (1980) claims at this stage errors seem to be infrequent. Moreover, learners are prone to produce correct utterances but it happens inconsistently. The rules were learned but the learners was unsuccessful due to a lapse or lack of attention.2.4.3. Explanation of errorsAfter identifying and describing the errors in SLA the researchers tried to find the explanation why these language behaviours occurred. There are numerous interpretations underlying error appearance. According to Taylor (1986) the sources of errors can be psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic and epistemic. The first group of sources regards the nature of L2 system and the p roblems learners have in using it. Sociolinguistic sources concern learners abilities to adjust his language in terms of the social context. The last category involves the learners lack of world knowledge. Psycho-linguistic sources of errors, were created by Richards (1974) who proposed a special figure accounting for them and enumerating certain mental phenomenon being in flower or certain accuracy failures, that isPerformance errors including transfer, interlingual (overgeneralization, transitional competence, induced errorsPerformance related to processing problems and communication strategies.Apart from the psycho-linguist sources Richard aimed at giving more origins which resulted in a list of three more sources that includeInterference related errors2.Intralingual errors are divided into four following subcategoriesOver -generalization involves creating deviant structures in place of two target language structures (Ellis,1994,p.59). It can also be related to redundancy reduct ion. It may occur with forms which do not carry important contrasts for the learner. This means that ending -ed- in Past Simple can be omitted. As a result learners produce sentences like I go to University yesterday.ignorance of rule restrictions involves occupation of rules which should not appear in contexts. This is a type of transfer when the learner uses structures that have been previously acquired. It can occur even when the target language is close to the mother tongue. Some rule restriction errors may derive from analogy which is a major factor in the wrong use of prepositions. Learners may attempt to use the same prepositions by analogy what leads to producing sentences He explained me the book from the sentence He showed me the book. Another example of the analogy can be seen in article usage.incomplete rule application, that reflects errors related to analogy. The structures in learners production is not fully developed. This may result in producing declarative word or der in questions like You like to swim? instead of Do you like to swim?false concepts hypothesized can originate from faulty comprehension in the target language. This type of error appears when learners use structures was or were as a marker of Past Simple Tense in example One day it was happened.Developmental errors, which reflect learners competence and show general features of language acquisition. These errors are caused due to learners limited experience. In contrary Richards (1974, p.174) claims that they illustrate the learner attempting to build up hypotheses about the language.Another linguist who attempted to outline origins of errors was Brown (1980,p.173).whose classification was similar to Richards view. However he added a few more sources of errors that are significant in a teachers savvy of learners interlanguage systems The author recognised such sources as communication strategies, prefabricated patterns and language switch.George (1972) presented a few arguments related to error derivation. He assumed that some sources of errors are universal. Furthermore, Richard and Sampson (1974) distinguished causes of errors which fall into seven categoriesTransferIntralingual interferenceSociolinguistic situationModality of exposure to TLAgeSuccessions of approximative systemsUniversal hierarchy of difficultyApart from interlingual and intralingual sources James (1998) attempted to distinguished another type of sources such as induced errors. Another term described this kind of error was introduced by Brown, who called it context of learning. As Stenson (1974) explains these errors derive from the classroom situation. They occur when learners receive faulty explanation of grammatical rules. Such errors can show teachers the level of the students language competence.2.4.3.1. TransferThe problem of language transfer has been explained by many researchers. It is believed that it plays a very important role in second language acquisition. According to El lis (1997) transfer refers to an attempt to use the knowledge of languages that have been learned previously. Learners use their mother tongue experience in order to organize the second language data. They try to create their own rules, construct their grammars.Dulay, Burt and Krashen ( 1982 101) describe it asthe automatic, uncontrolled and subconscious use of past learned behaviors in the attempt to produce new responsesAccording to Arabski (1997) there are numerous factors playing role in transfer occurring. They include learners age, type of language structure and interlanguage development.Littlewood (1984) and many other linguists distinguish two types o

Benefits of Video Conferencing

Benefits of Video ConferencingVIDEO CONFERENCINGWHAT IS VIDEO CONFERENCING?A Video Conference (known as goggle box teleconference) is a set of interactive telecommunication technologies which allow two or more locations to interact via two-way video and strait transmissions simultaneously. It has also been called visual collaboration and is a type of groupware.In other word Video Conferencing is a communications technology that integrates video and voice to connect outback(a) users with each other as if they were in the same room. separately user needs computer, web cam, microph angiotensin-converting enzyme, and broadband internet connection for participation in video conferencing. Users see and hear each other in real-time, allowing cancel conversations.Video Conferencing differs from a videophone calls in that its designed to serve a conference rather than individuals. It is an intermediate form of video telephony, first deployed commercially by A T T during the early 1970s using their picture phone technology.Video Conferencing is becoming increasingly touristed as a way to ease encounters, and save time and money on travel and accommodation.HOW IT WORKSVideo Conferencing can be used in a host of different environments, which is one of the reasons the technology is so popular. General uses for video conferencing include business meetings, educational training or instruction and collaboration among health officials or other representatives. indeed far video conferencing has been helping in different sphere of life. The most usage field of Video conferencing Interviewing prospective students and staffPresentationsSeminar presentations to remote audiencesBusiness meetingDistance LearningTelecommutingTelemedicineBENIFICIAL OF VIDEO CONFERENCEThe biggest advantage or benefit Video Conferencing has to offer is the tycoon to meet with populate in remote locations without incurring travel expenses or other expenses associated with face to face communica tion. Business meetings, educational meetings, healthcare conferences and more can all be easily conducted give thanks to video conferencing technology. Individuals living in remote areas can also use video conferencing to keep in touch if you forget, with the world at large.More hoi polloi are easily accessed and contacted using video conferencing. Because of this technology information and knowledge are often disseminated at more rapid rates, and collaboration between race occurs more willingly and freely. Students can take advantage of video conferencing to take classes at distant locations that would normally be unavailable. They can also take classes that will accommodate busy schedules.Video Conferencing can stimulate better brainstorming, knowledge sharing and information gathering. Businesses can use video conferencing to provide presentations to key members of an giving medication or to solicit new clients in a professional manner, regardless of their location. The pos sibilities for communication are virtually endless thanks to video conferencing technologies.Video Conferencing provides with the ability to meet and to work with others over a distance. The following list includes several examples of the benefits for businesses using video conferencingReduce travel costs.Improve use of executive time. facilitate up decision-making.Keep meetings brief and more focused than face-to-face meetings.Enable top management to quickly and effectively communicate with employees sitting in threefold locations.Allows virtual project management via video and data conferencing with geographically dispersed peer groups at short notice.Provides an effective way of delivering cost-efficient training to individuals without the prerequisite to consistently travel to central locations.Creates a medium for conducting interviews.Working out of home has never been easier or more practical. Videoconferencing makes it possible to stay connected with people in a very real way. Videoconferencing allows users to save resources by meeting with clients and/or colleagues via videoconference. This reduces travel expenses, while maintaining face-to-face contact.For a minimal cost, it is possible to set-up a fully functional videoconferencing system that works in a professional and reliable way from your home office.HOW TO DO THISVideo Conferencing used to be something of a black art. Today, easy-to-use and manage technology means that users need know little about how the equipment actually works, Whats important is what it can do, now how it does it.Video Conferencing has become popular over the last decade. Video conferencing is when two or more parties communicate in real time in separate locations with both video and audio signals. Technology used in Video conferencingVideo InputVideo OutputAudio InputAudio Output entropy TransferData Compression SoftwareAcoustic Echo CancellationThis is the technology/software used for video conferencing. The software is usually used for Video Conferencing. So start video conferencing in your preferable work and make your world easy and trouble free.

The Future Of Education: On-Line Classes Essays -- School Internet Tec

The Future Of Education on-line ClassesThe future is outside the traditional campus, outside the traditional classroom. Distance learning is coming on fast, says management philosopher Peter Drucker (qtd. in Ebeling and Gubernick). One form of distance learning, on-line education (courses offered over the Internet), has caught the eye of the public and is forcing educators to reevaluate the present state of the educational system. Because of their convenience, cost, and amount of and access to readily-available information, these on-line classes, specifically those in math and computer science, are becoming more and more prevalent throughout the Internet community. repoint TECHNOLOGYDescriptionOn-line math and computer science classes are educational courses offered over the Internet. They differ from traditionally taught classes in that they offer a wealth of information which can be easily and quickly accessed with the right equipment (i.e. a computer and Internet connection) and k nowledge. They also allow the user to log on to and enroll in the class at any time of day at his/her convenience. This may prove advantageous to those with strict work schedules, to those with families, or to those who learn scoop at their own rate or at different times of day. This format on-line classes is really good for older, nontraditional students who work full-time and have families, says Xeturah Woodley-Tillman, an on-line instructor at Metropolitan State College of Denver (qtd. in Brown).HistoryThe presence of and participation in on-line math and computer science classes has been cost increase ever since the Internet became readily available to the public. For example, four years ago Petersons college guide li... ...lemented and fully utilized. While they alone may not change the legitimate state of the educational system, on-line math and computer science classes should be a welcomed addition and should continue to grow in use far into the future. working CITEDB rown, Jacquelyn A. Big Modem On Campus. Essence Oct. 1997 150.Brown, John Seely, and Paul Duguid. Universities In The Digital Age. Change July/Aug. 1996 11+.Ebeling, Ashlea, and Lisa Gubernick. I Got My Degree Through E-Mail. Forbes 16 June 1997 84+.Natale, Jo Anna. On-Line School For Home Learners. Education Digest Dec. 1995 36+.Schutte, Jerald G. Virtual Teaching in Higher Education The New Intellectual Superhighway or barely Another Traffic Jam? http//www.csun.edu/sociology/virexp.htm30 April 1999.Tillson, Tamsen. High-Grade Opportunity. Canadian Business Dec. 1996 53+.

Does Business have Social Obligations? Essay -- Business Management St

Does Business have Social Obligations? In todays society people are being laid off or losing jobs everyday. Many propagation it is because a company is going out of business, or may not need as many employees. The company often times cannot afford to pay extra workers. During these circumstances, a question of responsibility and obligations begin to rise. Should businesses in todays free market economy have an obligation to be socially responsible for these actions which the businesses or company carries out? Businesses operating in a free market economy have limited obligation to be socially responsible.People who lose their jobs because a company is going out of business do not have a choice in the matter. They have not done anything wrong , but happen to be in the wrong place...

A Bat in the Wind :: Movie Script Film Creative Papers

A Bat in the WindAssume you are a screenspellr in the year 2010. You have been commissioned to write a movie script about womens sports and current society. What is the theme? Who are the protagonists? What are the issues and how does the movie end?A Bat in the Windsempiternal themes of equality, truth and perseverance are presented in this heartwarming tale of one courageous soft dinner gown player and the wiffle bat that she adored. It all begins one summer mean solar day shortly after Tegans sixth birthday. The scene opens with the young girl enviously take noteing a group of children play wiffle ball in the park crossways the street from her grandmothers house. She furtively glances rear her at the kitchen entrance and listens to the sounds of lunch preparations while contemplating the distance to the door. With a determined look in her eye, she takes a shaky duncical breath and dashes out to the park to join the game, all the while looking back and wondering what her grandm a would say. She approaches the field and stands by the rusty fence behind the plate. One of the older girls she looks about ten or twelve spots Tegan and invites her to join in. The kids show her how to swing the bat and the pitcher starts to toss the ball in her direction they let her keep swinging until she hits one. When she does, the light wiffle ball catches the wind, floats high in the air, swirls around a bit, and lands two inches from Tegans feet. After staring at the ball in wonder, she looks up and a slow smile spreads across her face. The other kids laugh and Tegan joins in with glee. The boy at first base looks at his watch and yells, Hey, its lunch time, causing all the wiffle ball players to scatter and race home in search of food. The girl that invited Tegan to play tells her to come back tomorrow in the morning to play a game with them and Tegan agrees with an enthusiastic nod of the head. She turns to run back for lunch, and sees her grandmother waiting by the fe nce. Why didnt you tell me where you were going, Tegan? I couldnt break you in the house and I was worried. I thought youd be mad at me, the young girl cried. For playing a game?